Document Falsification by an Organization-Free-Sample for Students

Question: Discuss about the Document Falsification in an Organization. Answer: Introduction Ethics is an aspect that is studied all across different professionalisms and fields. Business ethics, therefore, refers to company standards, sets of values, principles, and norms that are formed with the aim of governing the actions and behavior of an individual in a place (Bridgman, 2012). It examines morals or immoral problems that arise in the business environment. These ethics originate from people, organizational statements or the legal system. Examples of common business ethics are honesty, integrity, loyalty, fairness, leadership, and responsibility. On the other hand, business sustainability refers to the management and coordination of all environmental, social and financial aspects to provide an ethical, successful business (Baker, 2015). Business sustainability is considered to be in three categories. These include; corporate culture that incorporates the principles of every business decisions. Community or social that ensures that the business offers sustainable services to the society by giving back to them, either through charitable donations or offering internship the young members of the society. The environmental aspect ensures that the business is committed to greener friendly environment. The environmental issue is achievable by decreasing or eliminating the destructive environmental omissions (Choi et al., 2015). Every individual affects the sustainability of business in a market place either positively or negatively. This article, therefore, examines the business ethical issues, sustainability elements, theories, and concepts behind document falsification. It takes into account to the MacDonalds ethical levels and in contrast to other primary business ethics. It also examines the consequence that befalls a student that commits the cheating. In a systematic study, Vazquez (2016) denotes that a falsified document in accordance with Section 250 of the Australian Crime Act, is one that is purported to have been altered or made by an individual who did not work on the document, on the authority of an individual who is not authorized to have the document, in a place or on a date where and when it was not made respectively, in terms, the document was not made in at the original document preparation. Document falsification and the increasing fraud challenge it offers to the business community Document falsification is very paramount in most of the local and international colleges and universities among other academic institutions (McCabe, 2015). According to this study, document forgery is the process by which student in conjunction with unauthorized organization or individual obtains a particular document to present to the university as a genuine academic work. University and college students are prone to these types of practices. Students who are pursuing their degrees or masters program tend to pay some organizations or individuals to undertake their research work or their faculty assignments. They then submit them to the lectures. Under the University Academic and Policy Law, document falsification is a crime, and unethical that calls for punishment for the student for both the student and the organization that offers the service. The ethical idea behind student submitting assignments done b others at a small fee The document falsification practiced by students is not ethical. The practice is considered to be an academic dishonesty (Huang, 2016). It contradicts the research and academic ethics drawn by the University Academic Board. The university academic and research ethics dictates that every student should do their research publication. They should not take somebodys work and present as their own. The ethics dictate that there should be no collaboration in doing individual work, such as copying during the exam or asking for assistance in the form of payment to undertake the students role during the research work. They should ensure the originality of the academic work. Therefore, the practice is deceitful, and any academic certificate gained through it should be revocable. The unethical idea behind organization offering this type of service on the basis of MacDonalds four levels of business ethics Ethical of document falsification by an organization is unethical. Business groups always have one objective; to make money, nevertheless, the money should be made by the set business ethics. According to the MacDonalds four levels of business ethics, it is unethical to for an organization to offer document falsification to the university students to present as their academic work (Dominici, 2017). The MacDonald four levels of business ethics are personal level, organizational level, national level and international level. The personal level is also known as an individual level, a level where one must always participate in decision-making taking into account of what is right to do in different circumstances (Papish, 2016). At this level, honesty is paramount to the individual. One must be able to admit either in committing a wrong, making an honest mistake, or making a bad decision. The personal level calls for personal responsibility for any decision made. Therefore according to MacDonald personal level business ethics, it is unacceptable for an organization to offer such services to students who are pursuing their academic program since it contradicts with the Academic Regulations. The organizational level looks at the ethical action of the organization. It states that any mistake committed by a body is as a result of the decision made within the organization. Organization values should bring benefits to both the stakeholder and the society. When an organization receives payment from a student to do what is illegal like falsifying an academic work, and then it is being termed as corruptible. National level ethics dwells on the societal expectations such as good business behavior (Papish, 2016). It dictates that a business should play a fair ground that conforms to the law of the country. Business, therefore, is not expected to accept bribery or any other form of cash that is against the law for it to thrive. Therefore an organization that receives money from university students to assist them in falsifying academic documents is committing a crime that should be punishable. The practice will not only affect the students academic but will also put the reputation of such an organization in question. International level entails all aspects across the national boundary to curb the problems that affect the world academic institutions as a whole (McCabe, 2015). These efforts aim at addressing all global sustainability of every ethical behavior for the benefit of the students, their future career, and the community as well. However, when an organization practices document falsification to the university students, it tends to undermine millennium goals that are set by the international organizations and academic institutions to offer high-quality education to every individual. The practice will offer a significant number of poor professionalism and law integrity graduates. A contrast of the practice from the perspective of consequentialism, deontology and virtue ethics theories There are major ethical theories adopted by various business organizations both large and small in the local and international level. These ethical principles include consequentialism, deontology and virtue ethics as pointed out by (Moraes, Carrigan, Bosangit, Ferreira, McGrath, 2015). Consequentialism is a moral philosophy that dictates that whatever one does depend on whatever happens afterward (Kahn, 2012). Consequentialism is the act of worrying more about the result than the action itself. As a result, a morally right action will ultimately lead to good result without taking into account of the means from the consequentialist point of view. In other words, it says that if a goal is morally right, then the method of achieving the goal is acceptable (Morgan et al., 2015). For instance, every student in the university has the urge of scoring high points. In academic, therefore, according to the theory, the student is obliged to score the high marks without looking at the method us ed to get the marks, hence the student will opt to seek assistance from the organization that offers document falsifications and presents it to the lecture on their work. In the end, if not detected, the student will score high marks and be awarded marks or their degree. There are two different types of consequentialism. These are; Utilitarianism that states individual should stress more on human-being while Hedonism stresses more on human pleasure and satisfaction. The deontological ethical theory asserts that every employee should stick to their obligations and duties when making any ethical decision that can have a direct or indirect effect on an individual or organization (Saja, 2013). According to this study, the individual adopting the theory need to follow and uphold the recommended ethical obligations since this is what is considered morally upright by the business. The theory argues that anything good must be good in itself and good without qualification. For example, an organization offering assistance on research work to a university student will adhere to the terms offered to the student and the organization. Deontology offers both parties a good ground for their self-interest. According to Moraes et al. (2015), students often get there work done and obtain their degree without purely qualifying for them while the organization can make money without upholding business ethics. Nonetheless, it has got a negative attribute. The negative characteristic is that both parties break the laws. The students are not honest in their academic presentation, and the organization is not being honest and ethical in the activities and services it offers as it core function to the students. The deontology ethic does not focus its benefit to the diverse society but to an individual, the student that seeks aid in the academic work. The organization practices this without thinking of the consequences it will have to the general society. The virtue ethical theory, also known as character-based ethics insists on judging an individual character rather than the actions they comprehend (Papish, 2016). The theory provides guidance on the roles and behaviors a person should strive to achieve. In this theory, people are more interested in assessing the character of an individual other than the goodness or badness of a particular action. The virtue ethics requires one to engage in a business that doesn't contradict it. For instance, if a student acquires an academic work through the help of an organization, it may be detected by the lecture. If it happens that the lecture knows the character of the student as better than other students, the lecturer will judge the student more leniently than a student who always performs worst than other colleagues. Unlike other business ethics, the virtue ethic does not take into consideration of the change of ones character from real moral to immoral. An honest student may suddenly become dishonest unnoticed. The virtue ethic theory differs with other business ethics such as accountability, where one should be accountable for their action. In this case, neither the organization nor the student will be responsible. It also does not consider the safety of the student and the society as a whole. The student might be unlucky and get detected by the lecturer. That will lead to a disciplinary case whereby the student might be suspended from the faculty for not less than two academic years or get expelled from the university. The student will either gets expulsion or not but will eventually be in the society with little trust and poor professionalism. Consequences that might be considerable to students who engage in such practices Document falsification is a crime and has implications for any students who participate in such activities as pointed out by Thomson (2010). There are always set rules and policies in every university that addresses such issues. These practices do destroy not only the student's ambition but also affects the integrity of the university as a whole, an aspect that as well affects the qualification and development of the student in their future career. Document falsification, therefore, has various consequences and penalties depending on the level of which the student has committed the academic dishonesty as well as the policy of every institution offering the learning services to the students. In some institutions, the students are often forced to repeat the assignment with or without grade reduction. The student may also get a zero grading. Other institutions also ensure that the he student found guilty of the act is suspended from the faculty for a period not less than two academic years. The students may as well be expellable from the university, and the students degree may be revoked by the academic disciplinary board. In a systematic study, ///// point out that on being found guilty with a falsified document in Australia, an individual can face up to a ten-years imprisonment. The law applies for every individual found of a machinery or equipment for making a false document or found in possession of the falsified document as pointed out by McCabe (2015). The same study denotes that forgery and false document offenses are often penalized harshly with the aim of acting as a deterrent to others with a similar intention. As a result, the severity of the penalties tends to reflect the current community attitudes and standards to such types of offences. In fact, Huang (2016) puts it that forgery of documents as an offence that comes with heavy penalties as though one has been found guilty with forgery or fraud, an aspect that requires an individual to seek legal advice instantly even if he or she intend to plead guilty. The offence comes under the Crime Act of 2010 that was mainly created in a move to prosecute offenders that allegedly commit forgery and falsification of documents. Conclusion Document falsification is unethical practice and a criminal offense. The practice is prevalent among many university students who acquire their credentials through illegal means. The practice should be forcibly discouraged in the universities through severe punishment. Though other theories such as consequentialism and deontology tend to justify the practice, all students and business enterprises should focus on the MacDonald ethical systems. The MacDonald good levels have better societal and business advantages than consequentialism and deontology. Students should abstain from this practice to continue creating societal trust and honor placed upon them. Students who are prone to document falsification always end up having poor professional character. References Baker, M. (2015). Social Business, Business as if People Mattered: Variations on a Theme by Schumacher (1973). Sustainability, 7(6), 6478-6496. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su7066478 Bridgman, T. (2010). Beyond the Managers Moral Dilemma: Rethinking the Ideal-Type Business Ethics Case. Journal Of Business Ethics, 94(S2), 311-322. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0759-3 Choi, T., Li, Y. (2015). Sustainability in Fashion Business Operations. Sustainability, 7(12), 15400-15406. https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su71115400 Dominici, G. (2017). Governing Business Systems. Theories and Challenges for Systems Thinking in Practice. Systems Research And Behavioral Science, 34(3), 310-312. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sres.2454 Huang, P. (2016). Positive Institutions: Organizations, Laws, and Policies. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2735616 Kahn, L. (2012). Rule Consequentialism and Scope. Ethical Theory And Moral Practice, 15(5), 631-646. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10677-012-9357-4 McCabe, C. (2015). Publishing ethics: fabrication, falsification and plagiarism. Endocrine Abstracts. https://dx.doi.org/10.1530/endoabs.37.ew1.3 Moore, G. (2006). The Institute of Business Ethics/European Business Ethics Network-UK Student Competition in Business Ethics. Business Ethics: A European Review, 15(3), 292-292. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8608.2006.00443.x Moraes, C., Carrigan, M., Bosangit, C., Ferreira, C., McGrath, M. (2015). Understanding Ethical Luxury Consumption Through Practice Theories: A Study of Fine Jewellery Purchases. Journal Of Business Ethics. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2893-9 Morgan-Knapp, C., Goodman, C. (2014). Consequentialism, Climate Harm and Individual Obligations. Ethical Theory And Moral Practice, 18(1), 177-190. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10677-014-9517-9 Papish, L. (2016). CAPS Psychology and the Empirical Adequacy of Aristotelian Virtue Ethics. Ethical Theory And Moral Practice, 20(3), 537-549. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10677-016-9769-7 Parker, S. (2012). Theories of Entrepreneurship, Innovation And The Business Cycle. Journal Of Economic Surveys, 26(3), 377-394. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6419.2012.00728.x Saja, K. (2013). Developing Deontology. New Essays in Ethical Theory. The Philosophical Quarterly, 64(254), 200-202. https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pq/pqt026 Thomson, G. (2010). Taxonomy of Business Ethics Theories. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1718850 Trong , L. (2012). Corporate social responsibility, ethics, and corporate governance. Social Responsibility Journal, 8(4), 547-560. https://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17471111211272110 Vazquez, P. (2016). Family Business Ethics: At the Crossroads of Business Ethics and Family Business. Journal Of Business Ethics. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3171-1

Computer Science As A Career Essay Example For Students

Computer Science As A Career Essay Computer Science as a career by insert name here The field of Computer Science is based primarily on computer programing. Programming is the writing of computer programs using letters and numbers to make code. The average computer programer will write at least a million lines of code in his or her lifetime. But even more important than writting code, a good programer must be able to solve problems and think logicaly. The working conditions for a programer very greatly. Most banks require their programers to wear a suit and attend an office during normal work hours. On the other side of the buisness, many game companys and Dot-Com-start-ups allow and incurage a fun work environment. Often including toys, cubicle sleep-ins and cold pizza haphazardly laying accross many a desk. Yet nomatter what the company they all involve the employe to stare at a monitor for endless hours and write the applications of tomorrow on a standard keyboard. Many programers devote themselves to their craft and thus are compeled to sleep little and acomplish the work in front of them. After leaving the office, (if at all) it is not unusual to spend 8 more hours on the same project at home. The starting salary for a collage grad or someone of equal ability is about 50-60 a year. High positions requiring people with rare intelect and skill pay up to $300,000.00 per year plus benefits. A rare few achiev millions of dollars on independant/self-employed ventures. Some things can not be taught and must be present in the prospective programer. For example: the ability to aproach problems methodicaly and solve them with logic. However, Other skills can be tought. Comp. Sci. is becoming widely available in collages and even Highschools. Some technical schools now claim to teach an entire programing language in months. Opportunities in the field are extremely available to qualified personel. I have heard first-hand accounts of people being yanked out of collage for a programming position at $60,000 a year. With the expanding of the market for technology, comes the need for programers of all backgrounds. Job-security is pretty good as long as you dont kill somebody(wich recently happened at a dot-com-start-up). And the outlook for promotions is good considering the shortage of programers. There are disadvanges to being a programer. One being that you must risk eye damage with a computer screen every day. The second being that alot of time will be sacrificed in order to accomplish your goals. The third being the unsertainty of any tech related company. Often these companies are unpredictable in earnings and many do not last. Related jobs include logician, software tester, electrical engineer, graphic artist, and systems analyst. Most of these require some background in programing. All information contained in this report is completely original. Sources include *conversations with programers *television programs whose titles have been forgoten *experience as a programer *knowledge imparted to me by name of teacher .

Sample of an APA Style Essay With Announced Bibliography and Discussion Summary

Sample of an APA Style Essay With Announced Bibliography and Discussion SummarySample of an APA Style essay with Annoted Bibliography and discussion summary is one of the most difficult parts of writing a paper. If you are faced with the task of writing this part of the paper, here are some tips that can help you get through this part.The first tip for this part of the paper is to consult the following book: The 'How To' Book by Antony Giannoudis. It will contain numerous APA Style examples, which will give you an idea of what you should do in your own paper.The second important aspect is to understand the structure of a paper, or to know how your structure should be. Normally, each section of the paper has its own structure, which basically states the subject matter that is to be discussed. For example, if you want to write about political issues, you need to decide on the form that the political section will take.You may also want to consider how to write the political section of y our paper. This is a huge topic, so you may want to consider writing it separately. It can be quite tedious, but you can consider using a method that will give you a proper introduction to the topic before the political section.Another advantage that you can have is the use of an APA Style essay with Announced Bibliography and a discussion summary, because it is very easy to keep the bibliography organized. You just need to make sure that the authors of the bibliography are listed and that they belong to the same category. The discussion summary is very important in case you have written about the whole course.For the writers who may have some doubts on how to organize their essay, they may want to use the methods from the Authors' Resource Kit (ART). It contains more information and tips on writing an essay. Once you get familiar with these methods, you can easily use them for other subjects as well.The third tip for writing this part of the paper is to study the style of the Writi ng Center of the American Psychological Association, which has the APA Style examples that are also widely used in the field of psychology. It is highly recommended to use these examples when writing your paper.The final tip is to make sure that your essay is well organized. When you look at your paper and find that some important facts are missing, you may need to do a little research on what to add to your essay to make it perfect. This is a common problem that students face while writing their papers.

Comparing the Ideologies of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber Essay Example

Comparing the Ideologies of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber Paper Comparing the Ideologies of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber were three historical sociologists. Their views have become world renown and have shaped many ways of interpreting the social structure of many modern societies. This essay will take a glimpse into the three sociologists’ ideals and expose the similarities and differences they may have. Karl Marx’s view of society was based around the economy. All other social structures according to Marx, such as religion, family values, and politics stem from the base, the economy. Religion played no part at all in Marx’s sociological views. He is known as an atheist. He believed that religion was nothing more than a burden on society. â€Å"The economy that forms from the means of production results in the division of labor and forms property† (Simon 1). Division of labor can be described as the way in which tasks are divided in a society. Certain people are assigned certain tasks which help to make sure that the social structure progresses smoothly. As society becomes more advanced, the division of labor becomes more advanced, because more tasks become necessary for society to stably exist. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparing the Ideologies of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Comparing the Ideologies of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Comparing the Ideologies of Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Therefore, in Marx’s opinion, the economy grows and advances society which fuels the division of labor that is necessary for harmonious living. Marx believed that social struggle was the main cause of social evolution. In a society there is always a group that is in some way oppressed. If we look back just a few hundred years we see this in slavery, and before that serfdom. So how does oppression promote social change? â€Å"It is the ruling economic class that determines the dominant ideology in a society†¦ And it is class interest that the proletariat must oppose with revolution. †(Simon 2). The upper class in society rules over all the lower classes. When the oppression becomes an unbearable horror for the lower class, they must revolt, according to Marx. We saw this with both given examples. Serfs often fled from their lords, and slaves sought refuge in non-slave states and sometimes even killed their owners. In the case of slavery, there was a complete societal split between the north and the south in America. The main dispute between the two sides was the subject of slavery. But if not for the slaves revolting and feeing, maybe no action would have been taken. This is Marx’s view of social evolution at its finest. The lower class fought for social freedom, and American society was forever changed. So basically, Marx’s cycle of social change is simply Oppression, revolution, uprising, and then the cycle repeats itself as another lower class becomes oppressed. Durkheim believed that social order is obtained through social integration, which is the extent to which the members of a society are held together. â€Å"Durkheim advances his theory of social transition where he argues that social order is maintained through social integration and regulations in a social equilibrium. All nations develop normative behavior patterns and belief systems in the evolutionary change process. During the transitional period the diffusion of new norms and values disrupts the equilibrium of traditional societies. †(Zhao 2). Durkheim believed that society is held together by social integration, but when society is evolving, chaos takes over until new social norms are set. After these social norms are integrated into the new society, social equilibrium is once again achieved; that is until the next social evolution. This in between stage of chaotic change is fueled by what Durkheim called anomie. Anomie is described as a breakdown of social norms regulating individual behavior and social interaction. †(Zhao 4). Durkheim claimed that is human nature to act in a chaotic manner and to seek evolution. The only way he believed that order was possible was through social integration. Religion was a factor in the sociological views of Durkheim. â€Å"Religion, in this ma nner, contributes to the constitution and protection of social order by supplying a moral order. That is to say that ‘since society will always require periodic reaffirmation, religion is an indispensable, permanent social fixture. †(Mazman 10). Durkheim does not hint whether he himself is religious or not, he simply states that religion is necessary to have social integration. He claims that a moral order is necessary in society. It is a set list of rights and wrongs for people to live by. This order is never changed or even questioned by the members of society in times of peace. This moral order cannot simply be insisted by a ruler of some sort, it is much more complex than that. The moral order must come from an unquestionable source. This is why religion is necessary. With religion ruling people, they are threatened not with a punishment in this life, but with eternal damnation. People fear what they do not understand; therefore religion is the only thing that can provide absolute social order. A higher being that no person can see or hear cannot be questioned. The fear of eternal punishment will force a large majority of members of society to submit to the moral and social order. Durkheim insists that religion is one of the greatest ways to prevent anomie which leads to the inevitable society revolutionizing chaos. Max Weber greatly opposed Karl Marx’s views on religion and economy. Weber believed that the economy was certainly not even close to the center of society. â€Å"Economies result from communities, which are arranged in such a way that goods, tangible and intangible, symbolic and material, are distributed. Such a distribution is always unequal and necessarily involves power. †(Simon 8). So in Weber’s opinion material possessions are the root of inequality. Nothing is distributed equally and therefore, leads to social injustice and in some cases oppression. Weber believed that religion was responsible for change in society. â€Å"For Weber, religion, because it calls forth a type of personality through beliefs in ethical values, affects social life and interactions. These ethical values and religious ideas, in turn, are affected by social, economic and political conditions in a given society. †(Mazman 13). Weber’s view on religion is similar to that of Durkheim. Weber believed that religion gave society a set moral order. Weber also claimed that as society advanced the religious views advanced to somewhat modernize the social order. Weber’s work is therefore an invitation to see the history of political institutions, the history of religions or the history of morals as guided by a diffuse program aiming at defining institutions, rules, etc. which will most efficiently respect the dignity and vital interests of all. †(Boudon 6) Weber also dug even deeper. He claimed that certain religions prospered more than ot hers. He actually did prove this. Weber showed that Protestants had the best religion, not in the sense of religious views, but socially and economically. Protestantism provided modern individuals with coherent, meaningful, ethical conduct in terms of seeking salvation and God’s blessing in their worldly activities. †(Mazman 13). The Protestants believed in vocation. They believed that whatever occupation they had in life was not simply by chance, but they were called to it. They were what most would call ‘workaholics’ who dedicated every free second of their time to work. This made the Protestants statistically the most financially well-off group in most societies. This goes back to Weber’s view of the social structure. The Protestants were the wealthiest so they would be the leaders of society. So as I have shown, these three sociologists, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber, had world renowned views of society. They all had points that were unquestionable yet others that were flaky at best. We often saw views of each man overlapping. One cannot help but to ponder what if another sociologist came along and took the best parts of their works and put the pieces together. Would the perfect sociological view be formed? Only time can tell. ?

Social Theories in Conflict and Examples of Application

Social Theories in Conflict and Examples of Application Introduction Conflict is part of human existence. Theories expounded by scholars and theorists state that conflicts are the result of human needs not being met, or as a result of competition. When these needs are addressed to, conflicts lose significance. There are a number of theories discussed in this essay and most delve on the interconnectivity of society and the individual members.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Social Theories in Conflict and Examples of Application specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Paramount is the study of Lewis Coser which states that conflicts have a positive effect on society. Historical events relate that social groups are strengthened by conflict. Conflict and social upheaval are common in history. Oppression characterizes historical events. If there was no conflict, it would have been very difficult to write history because history is filled with conflicts of tribes and peoples , kings and their dominions, and nation states against nation states. People and organizations deal with conflict day in and day out. Human nature is complicated; it is filled with emotions and feelings which can be the cause of conflicts. In an organization, there are complexities, errors, and successes, because organizations are manned by humans. We are not governed by theories but we formulate these theories out of our experiences and continued socialization. In the course of time, these theories seem to rule over our behavior and activities. In our socializing activities, we commit errors which are a part of our behavior in making judgments, interpretations, assumptions, and beliefs about our social world, the people within it, and our place in it. This essay will try to delve on the many aspects of conflict, but most especially on the theories of conflict, and on the why and the how of conflicts encountered by man. The Theories Human Needs Theory – John Burton (1990) The theory states that conflicts are caused by human needs that are not met. These needs can be psychological, social, economic, political, etc. The needs and problems of the people involved in conflicts have to be understood and addressed so that the issues that preoccupy the groups and people lose significance and therefore conflict can be resolved. Another argument by Burton and Dukes (1990 as cited in Anyanwu, 2009, p. 58) states that satisfying human needs seems to be present in all conflicts although there are many kinds of conflicts.Advertising Looking for research paper on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Common to the Human Needs theory are selfs of Application specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Muzafer Sherif (1961, as cited in Goldstein, 1994, p. 98) and his research team conducted studies on the causes of intergroup competition. The research was known a s the summer camp studies. They recruited 24 12-year-old boys who came from middle-class families. The boys were not informed of the experiment; instead they were told that it was just a summer camp. The Researchers planned the experiment to be in three stages including group formation, conflict between the groups, and reduction of the conflict. The first stage involved transporting the boys into two separate groups and classifying them according to their psychological and physical characteristics, and separating those who were friends. Inside the camp, the two groups were separated from each other in two distant locations, avoiding possible contact with each other. Activities for the boys involved athletics, hiking, camping, swimming, and developing group structure. Toward the end of the first week, the two groups realized that they were sharing the same facilities and were beginning to exhibit a different kind of behaviour against the rival group. The two groups were now aiming fo r competition. The Researchers staged the games of baseball, tug-of-war and other contests, increasing the tension among the boys, until it escalated into verbal insults and other hostilities. Throughout the period, the attitudes of the two groups became more hostile but were cohesive towards their own team. More activities or experiments, disguised as games, were conducted by the Researchers, and each time the boys showed bias toward their own group. When they were asked to indicate their best friends, they chose their co-members of the group when in reality their best friends before they were brought to the camp were those from the opposite group. The experimenters created instances where the two groups could cooperate with each other and this was when they had to pool their money for a movie that they all wanted to see. Another was for all to help in rescuing the water truck when it got stuck. All other activities involved interdependency for the two groups. The result was that t here was a reduction in hostility. (Goldstein, 1994, pp. 98-9) Team development is designed to improve the effectiveness of team members with interdependent jobs, where effectiveness refers to managing problems and accomplishing group goals. The experiment proved that behaviour of groups could escalate conflict and how easily hostilities can form. The experimenters designed tasks wherein the two groups had no other recourse except to help each other.Advertising Looking for research paper on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Functionalism – Emily Durkheim and Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) This is sometimes known as ‘the society perspective’ or the ‘social-system perspective’. The original work of the French sociologist Emile Durkheim links this theory to the existing system at the time, but it was provided further study by the American sociologist Talcott Parsons. This theory was dominant in the United States during the period 1940s to the 1960s. It gained wide prominence but soon waned down although insights for this theory are linked to the existing social issues. According to this theory, human nature is irrational and self-centred. (Willis, 1996, p. 117) Society has a great influence to the order of things and can prevent the escalation of conflict and war. Willis (1996, p. 117) describes the tension between society and the individual members: ‘ the civilizing influence of society keeps irrationality in check, and individuals do not actively create social lives b ut are products of the external society. Individuals can be free and happy only within the confines set up by society.’ In this theory, society has a great influence on the individual members. It can be said that society comes first and the interest of the majority is ahead of the interest of the individual members. The studies of Frederick Taylor are somehow linked to the society-individual interaction in the functionalism theory. He defined work in terms of the specified tasks designed for the workers to follow, and with no chance of freedom or judgment left on the part of the workers. There is no motivation during those early years of industrialization, which is the basis of Taylor’s theory. (Luecke Hall, 2006, p. 18) Another is that of the social scientist Douglas McGregor who formulated the Theory X and Theory Y approach to management. Managers who embrace Theory X have two motivational tools: the carrot and stick – greed and fear. Theory X sees the boss a s prodding the employees, exerting too much control in the workplace. Theory Y assumes that when people are motivated, they accomplish goals. Workers become productive when they are motivated: to be a part of the team, or to be a part-owner of the organisation, and to be creative in their work. (Fournies, 1999, p. 34) Social Conflict Theory – Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels An important figure in conflict theory is Karl Marx whose work remains important to the understanding of how capitalist and modern society works. Marx’s ideas were revolutionary and a source of great change in a rapidly changing social order. It was known as a revolution within a revolution. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels focused their theory of the social conflict on the worker and the owner of production, and the so-called class struggle. They both popularized their theory at the height of the industrial revolution. During this time, there were two groups emerging in society – the moneyed cl ass or the bourgeoisie and the workers or the proletariat. (Sociology Guide, 2010) Karl Marx wrote that the worker was used for production, to make goods or commodities and profits. But as his production increased, his being and humanity were disregarded. He became poorer and also was transformed into a commodity, a cheap commodity. As this commodity increased in value, he became devalued in the process. The worker worked for the goods which had more value than him. As the worker continued to struggle, society broke up into classes which were hostile to one another, and the creation of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. (Randall, 1964) Marx’s focus on class struggles states that the worker has become ‘objectified’. He is made a tool to produce more goods or commodities, and the more he produces commodities, the more he is reduced or lowered. He becomes an instrument for profit; the capitalist rejoices over his job. The worker is reduced to the lowest serf, only being used for the advancement of money, capital, and more profits. (Marx and Engels Internet Archive, n.d.) On the other hand, the powerful and the moneyed class impose their will on the proletariat purposely to preserve everything they have – their power, wealth and even their culture. But Marx says the workers can make themselves powerful if they unite. Marx’s theory is still applicable today. The rich and powerful use their money and power to impose their will upon the poverty-stricken majority, and to preserve their wealth. In the modern world, society is always in a state of conflict because various groups or nation states keep on imposing their will on other groups or states. The powers that be impose their will on the majority, purposely to preserve their wealth and power. (Siegel Welsh, 2009, pp. 164-5) Nevertheless, conflict can offer a positive experience. This was explained by Lewis Coser (cited in Melchin Picard, p. 29) who linked his arguments to the w orks of Hegel and Marx. Coser was interested in the change that society was undergoing and how conflict affected the change. He had broader ideas on social health; he explained that conflict had a lot to do with social change and indeed it had a positive effect on society, i.e. social groups were strengthened by conflict. Conflict balanced the equilibrium. Hegel and Marx developed the theories on conflict as it affects society. Conflict and upheaval are common in history and they are not destructive but the source of strength or vitality. The positive thing about conflict is that history is not all about harmony but about oppression and the forces and activities to counter oppression. (Melchin Picard, 2008, pp. 29-30) Social Darwinism – Charles Darwin It is said that when psychology was still at its early stage, three theorists dominated the scene of debates and discussion – Darwin, Marx, and Freud. These three intelligent personalities influenced the thinking and wri tings of the early social psychologists. Darwin popularized the concept of â€Å"survival of the fittest†: that living things and everything in nature is at war, organisms fight against each other or against the rest of nature and the strongest can survive. (Deutsch, 2006, p. 13) Darwin’s theory focuses on the evolution of the species but the term evolution itself connotes conflict: there is a continuing conflict in living organisms that it seems evolution is all about conflict. Social Darwinism, on the other hand, is more of a vulgarization of the original theory of Darwin’s because it provided reason for other terms to evolve, such as racism, sexism, superiority of another group or class, and conflicts. The ideas of â€Å"survival of the fittest† and those of evolution are now misapplied to social groups which explain the vulgarization part. (Deutsch, 2006, p. 14) Imperialism has been rationalized with this concept. The powerful continue to oppress the less fortunate, or perhaps the working class. But Marx says that the working class can always unite and become powerful. This is the reason why he formulated the concept of communism – to help the class struggle of the working class. Social Darwinism started to emerge in the mid 1920s. But it declined during the popularity of the concepts of Marx’s class struggle. From the waning of the concept of Social Darwinism, emerged the phenomena of war and inter-group hostility. Postmodern Social Theory – George Ritzer and Douglas Goodman The heart of the modern theory is the belief that society can become a better group of people through a revelation of the hidden processes of the past. According to this theory society is a product of past events which can be said as historical accidents and not intentioned activities by personalities or heroes. This theory has two approaches, the modern and the postmodern. (Turner, 2006, p. 151) Postmodern focuses on contingency, for i nstance, scepticism or rejection of universality; rhetoric and a focus on what is irrational. These are emphasized so that it can lead to something which is the contrary, or to lead to some alternatives, and not the usual or traditional methods. Game Theory and Economic Behavior – Von Neumann and Morgenstern (1944, as cited in Deutsch, 2006, p. 16) The Game Theory, as explained by von Neumann and Morgenstern, emphasized on the interdependence of interests of the opposing parties. The theory also formulated mathematical solutions to conflicts through the zero-sum games, but it also emphasized that cooperative and competitive interests are interwoven in conflict. Deutsch (2006) states that conflicts were a mix of cooperative and competitive processes. The cooperative factors were opposed to the common idea at that time that conflicts were purely competitive struggle. Symbolic Interactionism – Sheldon Stryker Symbolic Interactionism is important in sociology as it connote s functions and roles of individuals in society. The theory was developed in the 18th to mid-20th century and its emphasis is on the role theory. This is somehow linked to Functionalism as individual roles are linked to society. (Stryker, 2006, p. 211) Individual members of society have particular roles or functions and if something goes wrong, conflict occurs and can be interpreted as poor role performance. Stryker (2006, p. 211) correlates the traditional symbolic interactionism to the role theory where everyone in society has a filling role to play, for instance as child, parent, teacher, politician, etc. Functionalism and symbolic interactionism have synonymous meanings. Conclusion Conflict theories link society and individual members. As stated in the introduction, conflict is a part of human existence, and history could not have been written without conflicts. There are conflicts within us or inside us, our relations and interactions with others and the society as a whole, and , above all, war or conflicts between nation states, ethnic or tribal wars, etc. Conflict is a human phenomenon. This is how we are made – our innate personality and, to speak religiously, the seeming ‘restlessness’ of the human soul. Conflict begins inside us because of our unique personalities. It springs to our early relationship with family members, the basic unit of society, then onto society. But conflict is not at all ‘bad’ for us and our interaction with society. Since conflict and social upheaval are a part of history, history could not have been written without conflict. Our conclusion goes back to Lewis Coser (in the introduction) who states that conflicts have a positive effect on society. Laws and policies of groups, tribes, nation states and governments have been written and imposed because of conflicts – and to avoid conflicts. . Functions and roles of individuals in society are emphasized in some theoretical perspective, for ex ample in functionalism. We are linked to the community where we assume different roles. At home or at school, in the office or organization, we play different roles. Some are children, others are parents, some play the role of teachers, supervisors, employers or managers. Conflict occurs if we don’t play our roles accordingly. Conflicts help individuals find solutions. Managers realize the importance of conflict and competition; it helps them find ways to improve their business, although in a larger sense they tend to avoid conflict and competition. When the level of conflict is too low, which means the people in an organization tend to avoid conflict – they are content with how things are going on and how they appear to be. This should not be so because conflicts lead people to finding new ways and be creative. References Anyanwu, C. N. (2009). Creative strategies for conflict management community building. Indiana, U.S.A.: Authorhouse. P. 58. Armstrong, M. (1998). M anaging people: a practical guide for line managers. London: Kogan Page Limited. Deutsch, M. (2006). Introduction. In M. Deutsch, P. T. Coleman, E. C. Marcus (Eds.). The handbook of conflict resolution: theory and practice, second edition. San Francisco, California: John Wiley Sons, Inc. pp. 1-4. Firth, D. (2002). Life and work express. United Kingdom: Capstone Publishing. pp. 85-6. Fournies, F. (1999). Coaching for improved work performance. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 34. Goldstein, A. P. (1994). The ecology of aggression. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 97-9. Kopelman, R. E., Prottas, D. J., Thompson, C. A., Jahn, E. W. (2006). A Multilevel Examination of Work-Life Practices: Is More Always Better? Journal of Managerial Issues, 18(2), p. 233. Luecke, R. Hall, B. (2006). Performance management: measure and improve the effectiveness of your employees. United States of America: Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation. p. 18. Marx and Engels Internet Archive (n.d.). Economic and philosophical manuscripts of 1844, Karl Marx: Estranged Labour XXII. Web. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. In G. Goble, The third force: the psychology of Abraham Maslow, pp. 233-6. USA: Zorba Press. Melchin, K. R. Picard, C. (2008). Transforming conflict through insight. Toronto: University of Toronto Press Incorporated. pp. 29-30. Randall, F. B. (1964). The Communist Manifesto, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. New York: Simon Schuster Inc. Siegel, L. J. Welsh, B. C. (2009). Juvenile delinquency: theory, practice and law. Belmont, California: Cengage Learning. pp. 164-5. Sociology Guide (2010). Conflict theories. Web. Stryker, S. (2006). Traditional symbolic interactionism, role theory, and structural symbolic interactionism: the road to identity theory. In: J. H. Turner (Ed.), Handbook of sociological theory, p. 211. United States of America: Springer. Turner, J. H. (2006). Handbook of sociological theory. United States of America: Springer. p. 151. Webster, R. E. (2006). CLEP introduction to educational psychology. New Jersey, United States of America: Research Education Association. p. 84. Willis, E. (1996). The sociological quest: an introduction to the study of social life. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 117.

The World System Since 1500 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

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Issues in Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Issues in Education - Essay Example However, there are a number of cracks in the ladder which need to be looked at in detail. As Laurence J. Peter puts it, â€Å"Education is a method whereby one acquires a higher grade of prejudices.† People learn how to read and write and become literate, but are far from being educated. This is so because of the mechanical setup of learning which exists in every school and college today, where rote learning and high scores are given preference over innovation and brainstorming. Practical projects are eliminated to make way for innumerous assignments and teachers are only concerned with work completion, being least bothered about whether their students are actually learning something. ‘Good education is not to follow the pages of a workbook. It’s following the workbook that’s within the child!’ (Christoph Schiebold). This thoughtful quote beautifully sums up all the major issues surrounding the education of children all around the globe. Educating a child is not merely about teaching him/her the alphabets or the number system. It’s about developing children’s minds to bring out the best in them, to help them identify and nurture their talents, to prepare them to face the world by arming them with the flawless knowledge about the right and the wrong, the good and the bad. Unfortunately, education has just been reduced to a lame system of mugging up some facts and representing them flawlessly in the examinations to score handsome marks. ‘One of the biggest fallouts of this system of education is that it completely annihilates any imagination that the child may possess.’ (Meenakshi Narang) Education is not limited to the classroom or the school premises. It is a never ending and an all encompassing process. As Oscar Wilde put it, â€Å"You can never be overdressed or overeducated.† Thus, the teachers and professors who are given the responsibility to educate a child should consider themselves priv ileged and not burdened. They are like the forbearers of the flames of our future, and how bright these flames may shine is completely dependent on them. However, this is easier said than done. Those days are long gone when education was considered akin to prayer and teachers were worshipped like Gods. Today, education is nothing more than a booming business and the teachers are mere employees of this large enterprise for whom all that matters is their paycheck at the end of each month. Neither are they any divine people nor do they worship their work. Needless to say, they aren’t concerned whether a future Picasso or Einstein is under their care; all they are concerned about is their job and how to complete it as fast as they can. Good teachers are like gems in a bag full of pebbles; extremely rare and tiresome to discover! However, they are indispensable for providing a befitting education to our children. ‘What really makes a difference, what matters more than the cl ass size or the textbook, the teaching method or the technology, or even the curriculum, is the quality of the teacher’(Newsweek). If the person who is teaching the children does not have the qualities of patience, open mindedness and understanding, then even the best schools and the fattest paychecks cannot guarantee the successful education of a child. A teacher, who understands his pupils, inspires them and makes them open up their minds and hearts to the world outside is the one who really educates them. As they say, if the roots are strong, the plant grows into a healthy tree. Similarly, if a teacher has what it takes to truly educate a child, he/she can build a gentleman out of a farm boy, no matter what tools he/she has at his/her disposal. Opponents of this theory claim that these issues are minor and baseless and are